Chapter 1: History of Gangs in the United States
The Influence of Population Migration Patterns on Gang Emergence
Street Gang Emergence in the Northeast Region
First Period of New York City Gang Growth
Second Period of New York City Gang Growth
Third Period of New York City Gang Growth
Street Gang Emergence in the Midwest Region
First Period of Chicago Gang Growth
Second Period of Chicago Gang Growth
Third Period of Chicago Gang Growth
Street Gang Emergence in the West Region
First Period of Los Angeles Gang Growth
Second Period of Los Angeles Gang Growth
Third Period of Los Angeles Gang Growth
Street Gang Emergence in the South Region
First Period of Southern Gang Growth
Second Period of Southern Gang Growth
Modern-Day Southern Gangs
Another Wave of Immigrant Groups
The Institutionalization of Street Gangs
Chapter 2: Myths and Realities of Youth Gangs
Consideration of Key Myths About Gangs
Myth 1: Most Gangs Have a Formal Organization
Myth 2: Gangs of the Same Name Are Connected
Myth 3: Our Gangs Came From Somewhere Else
Myth 4: The Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and 18th Street (M-18) Gangs Are Spreading Across the United States
Myth 5: Gangs, Drugs, and Violence Are Inexorably Linked
Myth 6: A “Wanna-Be” Is a “Gonna-Be
Myth 7: Children Are Joining Gangs at Younger and Younger Ages
Myth 8: Gang Members Spend Most of Their Time Planning or Committing Crimes
Myth 9: Gangs Often Have Highly Unusual Initiation Rites
Myth 10: Most Youths Are Pressured to Join Gangs
Myth 11: Adults Recruit Many Adolescents to Join Gangs
Myth 12: Once Kids Join a Gang, They’re Pretty Much Lost for Good
Myth 13: The Gang’s Here for Good
Myth 14: Gang Members Are a New Wave of Super Predators
Myth 15: Gangs Were Actively Involved in the Crack Cocaine Epidemic
Myth 16: Zero Tolerance of Gang Behaviors Will Eliminate Gangs From Schools
Myth 17: Sole Reliance on Law Enforcement Will Wipe Out Gangs
Myth 18: Nothing Works With Gangs
Chapter 3: Defining Gangs and Gang Members
Typologies of Gang Members and Gang Structures
A Spectrum of Gangs and Other Groups
Key Elements of a Gang Definition
A Recommended Gang Definition for Practical Purposes
National Data on Gang Members
National Data on the Number of Gangs and Associated Members
Race and Ethnicity of Gang Members
Chapter 4: General Macro-Level Theories and Modern-Day Applications
The Chicago School and Development of the Social Disorganization Perspective
Thrasher’s Contributions to Social Disorganization Theory
Application of Social Disorganization Theory to Gangs
Modern-Day Application of Social Disorganization Theory to Gangs
Other Pioneering Gang Theorizing
An Explanation of Gang Origins, Expansion, and Violence
Routine Activities (Opportunity) Theory
Chapter 5: Gang Involvement as a Developmental Trajectory
Developmental Delinquency Pathways
Location of Gang Membership in Developmental Pathways
A Developmental Model of Gang Involvement
Perceived Benefits of Joining a Gang: Gang Attractions
Relationship of Risk Factors to Gang Involvement
A Delinquency and Gang Theory
A Review of Risk and Protective Factors for Gang Involvement
The Later Childhood Stage
The Early Adolescence Stage
Apex of Gang Member Criminal Activity
Long-term Impact of Gangs on Participant
Desistance from Gang Membership
Chapter 6: Girls and Gangs
Females in Early Gang Studies
Modern-Day Studies of Female Gang Members
Level of Female Gang Involvement and Seriousness of Crimes
The Question of Increasing Female Gang Involvement
The Importance of Gang Gender Composition
Female Associates of Gang Members: Risks and Re-victimization
Risk Factors for Girls’ Gang Joining
Girls’ Unique Treatment Needs and Implications for Prevention and Treatment
Recommended Female-Specific Services
Recommended Gender-Neutral Services
Chapter 7: National Gang Problem Trends: 1996 to 2009
An Overview of Nationwide Gang Activity in the Modern Era
Gang Growth From the 1960s to the 1990s
Explanations of Gang Growth in the 1980s and 1990s
Nationally Reported Youth Gang Activity From the Mid-1990s
Patterns in U.S. Localities’ Histories of Gang Activity
Patterns of Gang Emergence
Presence of Gang Activity, 1996 – 2009
Patterns of Gang Presence in Larger Cities
Political & Criminal Justice Context
Chronic Gang City: Modesto, California
Emerging Gang City: Warwick, Rhode Island
Contracting Gang City: Newport Beach, California
Variable Gang City: Asheville, North Carolina
Regional Variations in Gang Presence
Explaining the Emergence, Persistence, and Decline of Gang Activity
Factors affecting the Emergence of Gangs in New Cities
Factors affecting the Persistence of Gang Activity in Cities
Factors affecting the Decline of Gang Activity in Cities
Chapter 8: Urban Gangs and Violence
The Intensity of Gangs in Cities
Patterns and Trends in the Number of Active Gangs in Cities
Patterns and Trends in the Number of Gang Members in Cities
Serious Gang Problem Trends
Gang-Related Homicides and Serious Gang Activity
Regional Variation in Gang-Related Homicide Trends
A Snapshot of Gang Homicide in the Largest Cities
Case Studies of Gang Problems in Large Cities
Contextual Characteristics That Contribute to Serious Gang Problems
Availability of Crime Facilitators
Features of Gangs That Contribute to Serious Gang Problems
Gang Structure & Conflicts
Transnational Gangs as a Version of Street Gangs
Violent Hot Spots and Gang Set Space
Chapter 9: What Works: Gang Prevention
Gang Intervention: Risk-Focused, Data-Driven, and Research-Based Gang Prevention
A Framework for Prevention and Early Intervention
Strategies for Delinquency and Gang Intervention and Prevention
Building a Continuum of Effective Delinquency Prevention and Early Intervention Programs
Child Exposure to Violence and Community Safety
Chapter 10: What Works In A Comprehensive Gang Program Approach
The Comprehensive, Communitywide Gang Program Model
Comprehensive Gang Program Model Administrative Structure
Implementing the Comprehensive Gang Program Model
Evidence-Based Gang Programs
Evidence-Based Gang Prevention Programs
Evidence-Based Gang Intervention Programs
The Evidence-Based Comprehensive Gang Program Model
The Six-Site Comprehensive Gang Program Model Evaluation
Compatibility of the Comprehensive Gang Program Model and Operation Ceasefire