Preface
About the Authors
1 Introduction to Statistics and Frequency Distributions
| How to Be Successful in This Course |
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| Math Skills Required in This Course |
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| Why Do You Have to Take Statistics? |
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| Statistics and the Helping Professions |
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| Hypothesis Testing, Effect Size, and Confidence Intervals |
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| Testing Causal Hypotheses |
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| Independent and Dependent Variables |
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| Discrete Versus Continuous Variables |
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| Frequency Distribution Tables |
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2 Central Tendency
3 Variability
| Steps in Computing a Population’s Standard Deviation |
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4 z Scores
| Using X to Find Important “Cut Lines” |
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| z Scores and the Standard Normal Curve |
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| Example 1: Positive z Score |
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| Example 2: Negative z Score |
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| Example 3: Proportion Between Two z Scores |
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5 The Distribution of Sample Means and z for a Sample Mean
| Sampling and Sampling Error |
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| Distribution of Sample Means |
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| Example: Computing and Interpreting the z for a Sample Mean |
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| Exact Probabilities Versus Probability Estimates |
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| Overview of the Activities |
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6 Hypothesis Testing With z Scores
| Introduction to Hypothesis Testing |
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| Hypothesis Testing With z for a Sample Mean Example (One-Tailed) |
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| What Does It Mean to Describe Something as “Statistically Significant”? |
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| Errors in Hypothesis Testing |
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| Why Statisticians “Fail to Reject the Null” Rather Than “Accept the Null” |
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| Why Scientists Say “This Research Suggests” Rather Than “This Research Proves” |
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| Overview of the Activities |
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7 Single-Sample t Test
| One-Tailed Single-Sample t Test Example |
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| Two-Tailed Single-Sample t Test Example |
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8 Estimation With Confidence Intervals
| Three Statistical Procedures With Three Distinct Purposes |
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| Logic of Confidence Intervals |
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| Computing a Confidence Interval for a Population Mean |
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| Computing Confidence Intervals for a Mean Difference |
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| Reporting Confidence Intervals in APA Style |
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| Confidence Intervals for Effect Sizes |
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| Interpretations of Confidence Intervals |
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9 Related Samples t Test
| Repeated/Related Samples t Test |
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| Logic of the Single-Sample and Repeated/Related Samples t Tests |
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| Related Samples t (Two-Tailed) Example |
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| Related Samples t (One-Tailed) Example |
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| Statistical Results, Experimental Design, and Scientific Conclusions |
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| Overview of the Activities |
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10 Independent Samples t Test
| Conceptual Formula for the Independent Samples t |
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| Two-Tailed Independent t Test Example |
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| One-Tailed Independent t Test Example |
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| Overview of the Activities |
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11 One-Way Independent Samples ANOVA
| Independent Samples ANOVA |
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| An Additional Note on ANOVAs: Family-Wise Error and Alpha Inflation |
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| Overview of the Activities |
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12 Two-Factor ANOVA or Two-Way ANOVA
| Purpose of the Two-Way ANOVA |
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| Describing Factorial Designs |
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| Logic of the Two-Way ANOVA |
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| Example of a Two-Way ANOVA |
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| Overview of the Activities |
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13 Correlation and Regression
| When to Use Correlations and What They Can Tell You |
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| Direction and Strength of Correlation Coefficients |
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| Spearman’s (rs) Correlations |
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| Using Scatterplots Prior to Correlation Coefficients |
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| Alternative Use for Correlation |
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| Correlation and Causation |
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| Hypothesis Testing With Correlation |
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| Two-Tailed Pearson’s Correlation Example |
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| One-Tailed Pearson’s Correlation Example |
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| What If You Need to Do a Spearman’s Correlation? |
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| Overview of the Activities |
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14 Goodness of Fit and Independence Chi-Square Statistics
| Logic of the Chi-Square Test |
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| Comparing the Goodness-of-Fit Chi-Square and the Chi-Square for Independence |
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| Goodness-of-Fit Chi-Square Example |
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| Chi-Square for Independence |
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| Overview of the Activities |
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Appendices
Appendix A
| Unit Normal Table (z Table) |
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Appendix B
| One-Tailed Probabilities t Table |
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| Two-Tailed Probabilities t Table |
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Appendix C
Appendix D
| The Studentized Range Statistic (q) Table |
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Appendix E
| One-Tailed Pearson’s Correlation Table |
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| Two-Tailed Pearson’s Correlation Table |
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Appendix F
| Spearman’s Correlation Table |
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Appendix G
Appendix H
| Critical Values for Chi-Square |
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Appendix I
| Computing SSs for Factorial ANOVA |
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Appendix J
| Choosing Correct Test Statistics |
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Index
